In the Name of God
 

Mohammed Soori 
Salam ‘Alaykum
Let me start my lecture with an appreciation of the organizers of the Research Center for Ethics and Spirituality, especially Dr. Shakernezhad, for giving me this opportunity.
I am going to talk about the relationship between Sufism or mysticism, on the one hand, and Shiism, on the other hand. So, as a first step, let me clarify these two notions.

1.    The Notion of Sufism or Mysticism [Slide 2]
By “mysticism” I have Sufism in mind, and in fact, I take the two terms to amount to the same thing. Sufism is an intellectual-social strand, which approximately began since the 8th century in the Islamic world, and throughout the last 1200 years, it underwent a great deal of developments. One question here is: what are the main features or characteristics of Sufism?
In recent years in the Western world, Sufism has come to be mostly known and associated with Ibn ‘Arabī in theoretical respects, and with Jalāl al-Dīn al-Rūmī and the Sufi dance (simāʿ) in its practical respects. However, the truth is that Sufism goes far beyond these.
Sufism has had a huge deal of manifestations and external achievements, such as the training of thousands of spiritual travelers; the production of a remarkable literature, both versified and prosaic, in different languages (mainly Arabic, Persian, and Turkish); the establishment of innumerable khāniqahs (or Sufi congregation houses); and the foundation of mystical chains or silsilahs. However, none of these constitute the core or the main essence of Sufism. There are about one thousand definitions in Sufi texts, but it must be said that Sufism is a spiritual journey; that is, when a spiritual traveler engages in Sufism, he starts his travel from a certain point under the auspices /'āspicīs/ of a Sheikh or master, and this will be an unending quest. The more and more one goes on the spiritual path, the closer and closer one gets to God, until one sees oneself as annihilated /e'nāyeleyt/ in God. When one becomes annihilated in God, one becomes unaware of oneself, or as per the Sufi jargons, one is annihilated in the Truth (Ḥaqq). The constant course or the continuous motion is what constitutes the essence of Sufism. Other features are just 'ancillaries of Sufism. (of course, there is a detailed debate here as to whether one only “sees” oneself as annihilated or actually “becomes” annihilated in God. However, the debate is outside the scope of this meeting).

2.    The Notion of Shiism [Slide 3]
After the demise /de'māyz/ of the Prophet Muhammad in 632, there was a disagreement among his followers as to his rightful successor. As a result of the disagreement, Muslims were divided into six groups (Muhājirūn, Anṣār with their three sub-groups of Aws, Khazraj, and hypocrites /'hipekrits/ or munāfiqūn, Ṭulaqā’, and Banū Hāshim). However, the disagreement apparently came to an end very soon, and the first five groups, who constituted the majority of Muslims, endorsed the caliphate or succession of Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq. However, the sixth group, which came to be known as “Shi’as” at that time or later, believed that the Prophet had explicitly appointed ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib as his successor. After ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib, the Shi’as believe in 11 other Imams from his progeny, and now they believe that the Twelfth Shiite Imam has been hidden or underwent an Occultation since 874. They believe, nonetheless, that he will finally return and spread justice on the face of the Earth. In general, Shiism was formed and developed on the basis of Imamate and Imams. In fact, Imamate is the main pillar of Shiite doctrines, other doctrines being only subsidiary to it.
Aside from the issue of the Prophet’s succession, there are other jurisprudential and theological disagreements among different Islamic denominations (including Shi’as, Mu’tazilas, Khawārij, and Sunnis). However, none of the issues has been as essential and influential as the disagreement over the succession of the Prophet.
Obviously enough, I do not talk about theological issues and disagreements among Islamic denominations. However, this brief sketch will pave the path for the discussion to follow.

3.    A Brief Overview of the Formation of Sufism [Slides 4 and 5]
As can be seen in this map, Sufism had pervaded most Islamic cities since the 9th century. We encounter a number of mystical schools in Baghdad, Basra, Damascus, Rey, Nishapur, Tus, Balkh, Termez, Bukhara, and Samarkand. However, the most important Sufi center was Baghdad, which was at once the political and religious center of the Islamic world at the time as well.
When Ḥallāj was executed in 922, Sufism declined in Baghdad, and many Baghdadi Sufis who had Persian origins returned to their native cities in Khorasan, Transoxiana; that is, to Rey, Nishapur, Tus, Bukhara, Samarkand, Termez, and Balkh. They wrote books, mostly in the form of apologies, in which they defended themselves as orthodox Muslims and their beliefs as Islamic. Gradually, they gained the support or favorable opinions of the public in Islamic communities. As a result, Islam came to have a mystical or Sufi coloring, and Sufi masters were highly honored and revered by people and rulers.

4.    Exterior Caliphate of Official Caliphs and the Interior Caliphate of ‘Alī [Slide 6]
Although Sufis were officially Sunnis, just like the majority of Muslims, especially in jurisprudential and theological respects, they considered themselves as followers of ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib in mystical, spiritual, and interior respects. One branch of Sufis had stepped beyond this and believed that the Prophet had two types of successors in fact: exterior successors, that is, official Caliphs who administered Islamic communities, and an interior successor, that is, ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib, who was an intermediary of the Divine Grace and people after the Prophet, and all the companions of the Prophet were obligated to consult him in spiritual and interior matters.
However, given political and social circumstances of the time, and intellectual and practical constraints imposed by Abbasid rulers over people who had tendencies towards ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib, these Sufis tried to avoid any explicit reference to ‘Alī lest they are accused of deviation from the orthodox Sunni denomination. However, the belief in the interior succession of ‘Alī is evident here and there in the work of this branch of Sufis.

5.    The Connection of Sufi Masters to the Prophet via ‘Alī [Slide 7]
In order to demonstrate that whatever they say and do is in compliance with the Qur’an and the Tradition (or ḥadiths), Sufis trace the chains of their masters up to the Prophet, just as practitioners and transmitters of ḥadiths trace the chains of the transmitters of ḥadiths up to the Prophet so that their ḥadiths gain validity. However, a wonder in the history of Sufis is that all Sufi masters trace the chains of their masters to the Prophet via ‘Alī (and not other companions of the Prophet), except Naqshbandīs who trace their chain to the Prophet via Abū Bakr (and this has a specific reason).
The head of all Sufi chains is Maʿrūf al-Karkhī. That is to say, all Sufi chains ultimately go back to him. However, there are two different chains from Maʿrūf al-Karkhī to ʿAlī and the Prophet. In older chains, there are three old masters between ʿ and ‘Alī: (the Prophet → ‘Alī → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → Ḥabīb al-‘Ajamī → Dāwūd al-Ṭā’ī → Maʿrūf al-arkhī). [Slide 8] However, throughout time, Sufis came to introduce some other Shiite Imams (up to the Eighth Imam) into their chains going to the Prophet (the Prophet → ‘Alī → al-Ḥasan → al-Ḥusayn → Zayn al-‘Ābidīn → al-Bāqir → al-Ṣādiq → al-Kāẓim → al-Riḍā → al-Ma’rūf al-Karkhī) [continue Slide 8]. In fact, they reconstructed their previous chain, and replaced it with the new chain without any official repudiation of the previous chain. They contended that both chains were valid, although the previous chain was no longer referenced or cited.

6.    The Formation of Sufi Chains or Orders [Slide 9]
Since late 12th century, groups of Sufis were formed in many Islamic areas after deaths of great Sufi masters, who were spiritually influential in their cities. They modified the teachings of those masters, considered themselves as their followers, and wished to continue their paths. For example, when Jalāl al-Dīn al-Rūmī died, his followers formed a group as centered on his views, practices, and remarks. Thus, they preserved Rūmī’s spiritual achievements and con'solidated their Sufi practices. Since then, Sufism was manifested in the form of Sufi chains or orders. Thus, entering into Sufism came to be tantamount to entering a specific Sufi chain.
As pointed out before, these Sufi chains traced the chain of their masters or founders to the Prophet in order to gain validity and preserve their connection to the Prophet. Without any exceptions, these chains go back to Maʿrūf al-Karkhī and via him to ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib, either through the old chain in which only ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib figures, or through the newer chain that includes Imam al-Riḍā and his fathers up to ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib.

7.    Full Acceptance of All Twelve Imams [Slide 10]
The major turning point in the history of the relationship between Shiism and Sufism was the full acceptance of the Twelve Shiite Imams. So far, whatever we said occurred as a result of internal developments within Sufism, without any interactions with Shiism. Sufis had accepted ‘Alī as the interior successor of the Prophet by themselves, and then they added the Second Imam up to the Eighth Imam to the chain, without having had any interactions with Shi’as. However, certain events in 13th and 14th centuries paved the ground for closer interactions between Shiism and Sufism.

8.    Grounds of the Acceptance of the Twelve Imams [Continue Slide 10]

1. The Mogul Invasion and the Collapse of the Caliphate: with the collapse of the Caliphate, the predominance of the Sunni view was gone. The view was spread from the center of caliphate (Baghdad) to other areas of the Islamic world, and it treated other views as heretical. In particular, for Ilkhanate Moguls there was no difference between Sunnis or Shi’as. First of all, they did not convert to Islam until the period of Ghazan. Secondly, they treated all Islamic denominations as the same. Such freedom of expression led minorities such as Shi’as to find opportunity to publicly express their views and build connections with Sufis who were the closest Sunni groups to Shi’as.

2. The rise of Ibn ‘Arabī: Ibn ‘Arabī was trained in the Sufi tradition of the Western Islam. He formulated a philosophical mysticism that soon pervaded the whole Islamic world. The popularity of his philosophical mysticism in Persia and its neighboring territories coincided with the collapse of the caliphate and the freedom of expression. Moreover, since the introduction of the Greek philosophy into the Islamic world, the Shi’as contributed the most in the development of the Islamic philosophy, and thus, they soon absorbed Ibn ‘Arabī’s philosophical mysticism and founded a Shiite tradition in the interpretation of Ibn ‘Arabī’s work, which is still alive today.

3. The rise of Khwājah Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī: Ṭūsī may well be referred to as the first prominent Shiite scholar who prepared the ground for the introduction of Sufi doctrines into Shiism. There were sporadic attempts before him by some Shiite scholars in Rey and Hillah (who cited Sufi doctrines in their work). However, their influence is not comparable to that of Ṭūsī. He was a philosopher and a commentator on Avicenna’s work, and at once a prominent theologian who introduced philosophical issues into Shiite theology.

9.    From Sufism to Twelver Sunnism [Slide 11]
The process of the Sufi approximation to Shiite beliefs (let me emphasize that the process was at first only an approximation to Shiite beliefs concerning Imamate and the acceptance of the Twelve Imams as interior successors of the Prophet or Sufi Poles; otherwise, it was still a taboo for Sunnis, even Sufi Sunnis, to approximate the Shiite community) led to a wonderful phenomenon, which is known today in Iran as “Twelver Sunnism”, that is, people who count as Sunnis in theological and jurisprudential respects (mainly Maturidis and Hanafis), and yet they accept the Twelve Shiite Imams as interior successors of the Prophet and Sufi Poles in Sufi respects. In this respect, they do not take any of the Prophet’s companions or Tābi’ūn as equivalent to the Imams.
The Twelver Sunni view was accepted by many Sufi paths, such as Safavids, Baktashids, Chistis, Nurbakhshis, Dhahabis, and Ni’matullāhīs.

10.    From Twelver Sunnism to Shiism [Slide 12]
The Safavid order—followers of Sheikh Ṣafī al-Dīn Ardabīlī—was a Sufi order that underwent a development from Sunnism to Twelver Sunnism within two centuries, and eventually ended up in Shiism. The order overtook the political power in Iran in the 16th century, and announced and recognized Shiism as the official Islamic denomination in Iran. Influenced by the Safavid order, other Sufi orders in Iran (Nurbakhshis, Dhahabis, and Ni’matullahis) came to convert to Shiism. However, Sufi orders outside Iran remained Twelver Sunnis.

11.    The Current Status [Slide 13]
Today, there are two types of mysticism among Shi’as: (1) mysticism of Khānqahs, which are inheritors of Sufi orders that moved from Sunnism to Shiism, and (2) philosophical and scholastic mysticism, which is common today in Islamic seminaries and universities and is centered on the views of Ibn ‘Arabī, albeit with a Shiite Sadraean interpretation thereof.

12.    Final Remarks
My survey was a brief and condensed historical look at the relationship between Shiism and Sufism. It is obvious that a history of longer than one thousand years cannot be recounted in one sitting. As Hafiz of Shiraz says, “there are thousand points here more subtle than hair.”
There is a much more important issue in the discussion of the relationship between Sufism and Shiism: can Sufism or mysticism be extracted or inferred from Shiite principles, texts, or literature? This is outside of the scope of the issue of the historical development of Sufism and Shiism, and is mainly concerned with contents, rather than the history. I hope to tackle this latter issue on another occasion.